Human nature that doesn't have any information since birth, gets the information via reasoning way independent from cultural and historical structures. According to Becky A. Smerdon and David T. Burkam, students develop analytic skills that can be applied to other problems and situations, rather than accept their teachers explanation (1999). Both ART AND SCIENCE require "HANDS ON" involvement in order to learn. %PDF-1.5 % They believe that in this changing world of changing values, no subject matter is essential for its intrinsic value; and that it is very difficult to tell which subject matter is likely to be most functional. The main difference between essentialism and perennialism is that essentialist curriculum tends to be fact-based while perennialist curriculum tends to be principal-based. in decision making about education in its totality (Ogwara, et. Paulo Freire, bell hooks (note: bell hooks intentionally does not capitalize her name, which follows her critical stance that language, even how we write ones own name, is political and ideological.). Both of these philosophers represented the Ecclesiastic Perennialist position. 65 0 obj <>stream Faulkner, S.A. (2006). . Lay (secular) philosophers that have influenced perennialism include: Robert M. Hutchins, Mortimer Adler, and Allan Bloom. Students, on the other hand, are encouraged to formulate questions and develop their thoughts in dialogue with one another using strategies like Socratic circles. These educational philosophies focus heavily on what should be taught, the curriculum aspect. Typically, essentialism argues for a back-to-basics approach on teaching intellectual and moral standards. Essential skills (three Rs reading, writing, and arithmetic). HK@W.\6KN mA$lp}G9Mv'3^TVWo{HbhI UU`4ILO,n,2-S@Kj:^?dVD6h-^T!{r,1WM42Pm3U{Gg `cJ Driscoll, M.P. Changes include: These issues need consideration in curriculum development. We begin by pointing out that there are two broad categories of educational philosophies:the traditional and the modern philosophies. Essentialist curricula focuses on reading, writing, computing clearly and logically about objective facts about the outside real world. In the following video, Dr. Thomas Lickona describes the importance of respect and responsibility in schools. The ultimate educational aim is achievement of knowledge of nature and inner workings of the universe. This page titled 2.5: What is the difference between teacher-centered vs. student-centered philosophies? also critical to have a relationship with a higher Spiritual being. This teaching-centered philosophy believes in teaching students the accumulated knowledge of our civilization through core courses in the traditional academic disciplines. Perennialism - focuses on human concerns that have caused concern for centuries, revealed through 'great works' (Ornstein, 2003, p. 110) It focuses on great works of art, literature and enduring ideas. Their studies and research were geared towards identifying the most appropriate type and nature of curriculum for learners. Students should learn disciplines to develop intellectual skills to discover important principles and theoretical insights. According to this position, whether or not the pupil will ever make use of subjects like algebra, Latin, or physical education does not matter. Theory 2: Subject matter should be taught for use. endstream endobj startxref Knowledge leads to growth and development. He sees this crisis as being particularly significant at the university level. Many sources consider philosophy to be the study of basic ideas about knowledge, truth, right and wrong. Perennialism For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about the great ideas of Western civilization. There is also an emphasis on practical skills. How does the curriculum differ among Ecclesiastical Perennialist and Lay (secular) Perennialists? Perennialism -- Focus on curriculum is classical subjects' literary analysis and considered curriculum as constant. What is the educational focus of Perennialism? In this paper, I will compare and contrast the five (5) philosophies of education; Essentialism, perennialism, progressivism, social reconstructionism, and existentialism and incorporate the top two (2) philosophies that I scored highest on into my own philosophy of education. 0 Perennialist classrooms are also centered on teachers in order to accomplish these goals. philosophy. Essentialism is what is used in today's classrooms and was helped by William Bagley in the 1930s. Argues that existentialism engages deeper minded thinking in students but in different ways. Perennialism advocates for seeking, teaching, and learning universal truths that span across historical time periods. To support the development of the mind, he proposed a curriculum based on the Great Books of Western civilization. Curriculum,Technology,and Teaching in Challenging Times. These teachers want to teach their students how to be excellent leaders in society just like history portrays. H|UFwIIeF#d"A6#C9g~l}{T9;Kn:\ap-,IfN3|sPCsC}q||oYz@, X(_. Perennialism draws from both idealism and realism. What are the main methods of instruction in a Perennialist classroom? All students should take classes in English Language Arts, foreign languages, mathematics, natural sciences, fine arts, and philosophy. How does your philosophy of teaching and learning drive your future personal and professional choices? Basically, this is an essentialists position. Some of the most popular student-centered philosophies include progressivism, social reconstructionism, and existentialism. Educational Philosophies. We remember this from our own experiences in school. 247 0 obj <> endobj As a result, school exist to teach reason and God's will. al., 2010). the principle of orderliness of the world behind its organization, this means that law and order prevail in the universe. teacher-pupil planning of curriculum activities, flexible curriculum and individualized instruction, and. Answer Key to ACTVITY 2.3: Progressivism: 4, 10, 12 & 15 Essentialism: 1, 6, 9 & 11 Perennialism: 2, 7, 8 & 13 Reconstructionism: 3, 5, 14 & 16 2.8 Psychological Foundations of Curriculum Earlier we discussed how different philosophical orientations and believes influence curriculum. Why or why not? teaching statement - Perennialism, Essentialism, Romanticism and Progressivism. al., 2010). Compare and contrast the philosophical beliefs of perennialism, essentialism, progressivism and reconstructionism. Legal. For a more information about the Perennialist philosophy, please watch the following video. Backward Design Processas a Curriculum Development Model, 12. Social Reconstructionism encourages schools, teachers, and students to focus their studies and energies on alleviating pervasive inequities, and as the name implies, reconstruct into a new and more just social order (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). Shawn A. Faulkner and Christopher M. Cook state that the state tests seem to drive the curriculum and warrant more teacher-focused instructional methodslecture, worksheets, and whole-class discussion (2006). The school exists to develop character, increase knowledge, and cultivate aesthetic taste. Check Writing Quality. Reconstructionists hold on to an anthropologicalsociological philosophy that would put schools at the forefront of remaking society. Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum, 4. 1. al., 2010). Both types will be different in their teaching styles; however, both want the best for their students. . Who were some of the key contributors to this philosophy? For examples in the classroom, one group of students might analyze news coverage of racial and ethic groups of a community or students might arrest and trial records in order to determine the role race plays in differential application of the law (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). Opines that they hope to be a meaningful person in young children's lives. This technique gives the students the chance to use their abilities and experiences to solve problems and find new ways of learning. { "5.01:_Foundations_of_Educational_Philosophy" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "5.02:_Ontological_Frameworks_of_Philosophy" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "5.03:_Philosophical_Perspective_of_Education" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "5.04:_Educational_Psychology" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "5.05:_References" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()" }, { "00:_Front_Matter" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "01:_Why_Teach" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "02:_Teaching_and_Learning" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "03:_Becoming_a_Teacher" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "04:_Curriculum_and_Academic_Standards" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "05:_Educational_Philosophies" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "06:_Assessment" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "07:_Classroom_Management" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "08:_History_of_American_Education" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "09:_Student_Diversity_and_Social_Emotional_Learning" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "10:_The_Governance_and_Finance_of_American_Public_Education" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "11:_Ethics_and_Legal_Issues_in_Education" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "zz:_Back_Matter" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()" }, 5.3: Philosophical Perspective of Education, [ "article:topic", "license:ccby", "authorname:sunyoneonta", "licenseversion:40" ], https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@app/auth/3/login?returnto=https%3A%2F%2Fsocialsci.libretexts.org%2FBookshelves%2FEarly_Childhood_Education%2FBook%253A_Foundations_of_Education_(Lumen)%2F05%253A_Educational_Philosophies%2F5.03%253A_Philosophical_Perspective_of_Education, \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}}}\) \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{#1}}} \)\(\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\) \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\) \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \(\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\) \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\) \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)\(\newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\), 5.2: Ontological Frameworks of Philosophy, Social Reconstructionism & Critical Pedagogy. The curriculum therefore is based on the learners interests, needs, abilities, and aspirations, among other characteristics of the learners. The six key philosophies of education that will be explored in this text are: Perennialism, Progressivism, Behaviorism, Essentialism, Social Reconstructionism, and Postmodernism. ), { "2.01:_What_are_philosophies_of_education" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "2.02:_What_is_the_purpose_of_education" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "2.03:_How_is_Plato_a_philosophical_leader_in_education" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "2.04:_What_is_constructivism" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "2.05:_What_is_the_difference_between_teacher-centered_vs._student-centered_philosophies" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()" }, { "00:_Front_Matter" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "01:_Educator_as_a_Professional" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "02:_Educational_Philosophy" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "03:_History_of_Education" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "04:_Educational_Reform" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "05:_Diversity_-_Classroom_Practices_and_Law" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "06:_Sociological_Influences-_Economics_and_Culture" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "07:_School_Organization" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "08:_Curriculum" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "09:_Effective_Schools" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "10:_Effective_Teaching" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "11:_Classroom_Management" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "12:_Ethics_and_Law" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "13:_Technology" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "14:_Instructional_Assessment-_Involving_Students_in_the_Assessment_Process" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "15:_Instructional_Assessment-Grading" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "16:_Instructional_Assessment-_Performance_Assessment_and_Rubrics" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "17:_Instructional_Assessment-_Assessment_Strategies" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "18:_Instructional_Assessment_-_Standardized_Testing" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "zz:_Back_Matter" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()" }. What is Essentialism? Gaudelli, W. (2002). Essentialism and perennialism are two major educational philosophies. By the end of this section, the following Essential Questions will be answered: Historically, this philosophy reflects the views of Plato and Aristotle. 2. Curriculum is usually integrated across contents instead of siloed into different disciplines. Hence, the need to acquire knowledge and principles of the human condition and acts of choice-making. endstream endobj 33 0 obj <>/Metadata 4 0 R/PageLayout/OneColumn/Pages 30 0 R/StructTreeRoot 8 0 R/Type/Catalog>> endobj 34 0 obj <>/ExtGState<>/Font<>/XObject<>>>/Rotate 0/StructParents 0/Tabs/S/Type/Page>> endobj 35 0 obj <>stream Critical pedagogys goal is to emancipate marginalized or oppressed groups by developing, according to Paulo Freire, conscientizao, or critical consciousness in students. The teachers are not concerned about the students' interests or experiences. The realists school of thought is traced back to Aristotle, another main, Greek philosopher. In todays school, there are essentially two types of teaching philosophies. These philosophies are perennialism, progressivism, reconstructionism, positivism, constructivism, behaviorism, humanism, and essentialism (Ganly, 2007). Curriculum is expected to contain important subjects taught in their customary separate form, e.g., history as history, geography as geography, and civics as civics, rather than combining them and naming them Social Studies for example. Social reform is the key to this type of philosophy and social challenges and problems help guide teachers with their message. What are the two main forms of this philosophy? Do you think you have the skills to be a seminar leader? Sadker, D. & Zittleman K. (2007). A classroom constructed from this format typically espouses a traditional philosophy where a teacher answers questions and inquires from the students in order for them to gain an understanding. To support educators in meeting this goal, they are supposed to use the Great. Philosophy points out to the society what. primary goal of education within this philosophy is to search for and disseminate truth. Philosophy is at the heart of curriculum development. Next, use the reading below by Thomas Peterson and compare and contrast the following: Idealism to Reconstructivism . Philosophy develops a broad outlook, and it also helps in answering what schools are for, what subjects are important, how students should learn, and what materials and methods should be used. Existentialism philosophies say no to tradition and focuses on the students unique talents. Essentialists urge that schools get back to the basics; they believe in a strong core curriculum and high academic standards. Is the educational philosophy of teaching basic skills. Subject matter is merely a medium for the teaching of intellectual processes, skills, attitudes, ideals, and appreciations.. the great ideas of Western civilization. Write down three things you learned about this philosophy of education, two things you found surprising, and one professional connection you can make to your future professional practice. Within the epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of knowledge and how we come to know, there are four major educational philosophies, each related to one or more . They are Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and Reconstructionism. used in classrooms the world over. What type are you? Sociological and Political Issues That Affect Curriculum, 5. The following video shows a real classroom of 4th- and 5th-grade students who are participating in a constructivist social studies lesson. Many props are used to expand the students abilities and to make them think a little differently. Essentialism - It has free will, free choice and the expression of one . By the end of this section, the following essential questions will be answered: Perennialism is identified as a very conservative theory of education. What qualities do you have that would make you a good coach? . So what kind of teachers am I talking about? Our senses are also a source of knowledge. Which characteristic would NOT be found in a teacher-centered classroom? Brown, J. K. (2008). St. Johns College in Annapolis, Maryland is a great example of a University that follows a Perennialist philosophy. teacher would be focusing on the management and teaching of basic educational skills. cation advocates for the cultivation of human intellect. They believe that each subject has value in and of itself. These truths, Perennialists argue, have everlasting importance in helping humans solve problems regardless of time and place. One way to do this was by reading the Great Books of the Western World Program. The Tested Curriculum and Changing Views of Assessment, 15. and the nature of meaning of life. (Merriam-Webster Dictionary). School is therefore an extension of home and community. Interdisciplinary subject matter; activities and. Family-life disintegration in many of the U.S. and other countries and globally; which forces the schools to take on more responsibilities previously assumed by the family. p"49oR8[x:[ou1Q -t)H%n"G E^5|_T ; Both teacher-centered and student-centered philosophies can achieve that for the student. Mastery of concepts and principles of subject matter, Essential subjects (English,science, history, math). X^?{`rQ/! Progressivism is one of the educational philosophies originating from pragmatism. There are four philosophical perspectives currently used in educational settings: essentialism, perennialism, progressivism, and social reconstructionism/critical pedagogy. As the authority figure, it is up to the teacher to disseminate the truth. Concerning progressivism, the emphasis is on a child-centered curriculum, which necessitates a flexible and broad curriculum. Essentialist teachers believe that what they teach will help their students in real-life situations as they grow older (Gaudelli, 2002). Critical pedagogy is the application of critical theory to education. Such a philosophy should necessarily give the basic principles to give an answer to the philosophical question, "What subject matter, experiences, and worthwhile activities are essential to realize the raison d'etre (reason for living) of the school?" For that reason, this article will focus more on eight major philosophies and theories of education:Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism . Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices. Reconstructionists educational aims are to improve and reconstruct society as need be, as well as education for change and social reform. When aligned with accuracy and fairness, their inputs should be considered. Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.org. They believe that the most important topics develop a person. Planning of curriculum often involves various stakeholders including learners, parents, and community leaders. One of the reasons for a more uniform approach to curriculum is the idea of a one-size-fits-all mentality. The program identified 100 of the classic literature books that Perennial- ist argue must be taught to students to cultivate students intellect and civilization. For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire underst and ings about. Reflect on your learnings about Perennialism. Perennialism, Essentialism, progressivism, Reconstructionism Muhammad Ayoob Babar Reg. We learn by doing. Thus, the study of contemporary social problems become the centerpiece of curriculum content. All the major educational philosophies are derived from these schools. What are the broad categories of philosophy, and what beliefs are espoused in each? One example of this would be if a math teacher lets his or her students work in groups to solve different problems or let students create their own test. The main focus of this philosophy is to help students find ways to improve society. This study found that there are six philosophical views, including essentialism, perennialism, progressivism, socio-reconstructionism, humanism, and idealism, which influence the design of the . These educational philosophies focus heavily on WHAT we should teach, the curriculum aspect. Philosophy is therefore built on practical usefulness, i.e., cash value of ideas. Hence, truth is what works, what turns out all night. Idealism. Essentialists tend to privilege traditional academic disciplines that will develop prescribed skills and objectives in different content areas as well as develop a common culture. Perennialist generally prefer a past orientation, because it tends to be based on historical truth, rather than conjecture about the present and guessing about the future (Gaudelli, 2002). They are Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and Reconstructionism. The teacher views each student as an individual and students learn how to achieve their full potential by trying new concepts. Progressive education curriculum emphasized five approaches to the teaching/learning process, namely: Selection of study material in line with the expressed interests and concerns of the learner. Beyond Behavioral Objectives: Problem Solving and Constructivism, 10. Schools should be sites of rigor where students learn to work hard and respect authority. a subject-centered . make what we mean more specific and definite, and. 1. The goal of a perennialist educator is to teach students to think rationally and develop minds . The results revealed that progressivism and re-constructionism philosophies, which are based on contemporary approach to education, are preferred to essentialism and perennialism philosophies . These traditions include those in the wider society as well as traditions upheld in the school system. Unlike the more abstract ontology and axiology, these four perspectives focus primarily on what should be taught and how it should be taught, i.e. Perennialism . In a perennialist classroom, the teacher will focus on the importance of reading and will often use the underlying reading lessons to make a moral point (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). Theory 1: Subject matter should be taught for its own sake. Schools should therefore not be side-tracked into catering to the personal problems and social needs of students. Following now is a discussion on sociological foundations. Idealism is a philosophy that has stood the test of time. The teachers role is to help students define their own essence by exposing them to various paths they may take in life and by creating an environment in which they can freely choose their way (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). Idealism is considered one of the oldest philosophical systems, whose main proponent was the Greek philosopher, Plato. Influence of various interest groups. Essentialists educational aims are to develop intellectual powers, as well as educate competent persons. Retrieved September 15, 2008, from http://www.teachervision.fen.com/teaching-methods-and-management/curriculum-planning/4786.html.

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